- PDF, 1.51Mb) – in 2014 (read the NHS website's coverage of this report)
- NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination: A systematic review of water fluoridation (PDF, 6.22Mb) – in 2000
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US): Recommendations on selected interventions to prevent dental caries, oral and pharyngeal cancers and sports-related craniofacial injuries (PDF, 69kb) – in 2002
- US Department of Health and Human Services Community Preventive Services Task Force: Community water fluoridation – in 2013
- Royal Society of New Zealand: Health effects of water fluoridation (PDF, 1Mb) – in 2014
- Cochrane Oral Health Group: Water fluoridation for the prevention of dental caries – in 2015
Overall, these reviews found that water fluoridation appears to contribute to reduced tooth decay levels and doesn't seem to be associated with any significant health risks.
Is fluoride safe?
There have been some concerns that fluoride may be linked to a variety of health conditions. Reviews of the risks have so far found no convincing evidence to support these concerns.
However, a condition called dental fluorosis can sometimes occur if a child's teeth are exposed to too much fluoride when they're developing. Read more about looking after children's teeth and looking after your baby's teeth.
Mild dental fluorosis can be seen as very fine pearly white lines or flecking on the surface of the teeth. Severe fluorosis can cause the tooth's enamel to become pitted or discoloured.
It's uncommon in the UK for fluorosis to be severe enough to seriously affect the appearance of teeth. This is because fluoride levels in water are carefully monitored by the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) and adjusted if necessary.